Abstract
Situating this discussion within the context of the postmodern era, we explore how Existential Analytic concepts of personhood, dialogue, and encounter are impacted by the phenomenon of social media. The prerequisites necessary for one to encounter another, namely attention, justice, and appreciation are explored. Social media may provide the opportunity for individuals to receive attention, justice, and appreciation from others, but it is unclear whether individuals afford these to themselves through inner dialogue. It seems that in curating personas for social networking use, individuals may become distanced from themselves and others, thus losing resonance with their own essences and hindering authentic encounters with others. We suggest that Personal Existential Analysis provides a valuable means by which individuals may find inner positioning, which will enable individuals to have more authentic encounters via social media. Furthermore, we suggest that future research in the area of social media, personhood, and inner dialogue would be culturally relevant and valuable in gaining understanding of this phenomenon and its impacts on relationship with self and others.
Introduction
In line with concerns regarding the psychological implications of the electronically-facilitated decentralized self and its political implications in our world, this article seeks to explore the potential impacts of social media on the ways we define and understand personhood as well as our curated selves vis-a-vis the virtual world. We will consider the social phenomenon of social media through an Existential Analytic lens, first situating it within the broader cultural context of the present postmodern era. We will consider how conditions of the postmodern world contribute to the development and/or deconstruction of normal human communal contexts, exploring the possible correlation between social media use and the dissolution of the constitutive connections to others. In situating social media in the broader context, we will then explore the possible impacts of social media at the level of the person, particularly the possible impacts it has on encounter and inner dialogue. Finally, we will draw upon theoretical and sociopolitical discourses to develop recommendations regarding how Personal Existential Analysis (PEA, cf. Kwee & Längle, 2013) may help to frame and focus the work of counsellors who are addressing issues surrounding personhood and the relational self.
Postmodernism: Philosophical Conditions of Virtual Reality Within the Cultural Context
Postmodernism and its impacts on human interaction and ethics have, over the past decades, attracted the attention of philosophers and theorists seeking to anticipate the implications of current and coming changes on the Internet and in social networking. The work of Baudrillard (1981/1994), for example, offers a treasure trove of ideas that are very useful in thinking about the Internet and Web 2.0. Baudrillard’s most important anticipation of the current reality lies in his examination of how the western societal move towards toward technological revolution and urbanization leads to a disconnection from reality and resultant fractures in social relations (cf. Elliot, 2000). On the other hand, Lyotard (1984) conceptualizes Internet discourse as the expansion of normative and ‘acceptable’ ways of discussion. He argues that postmodern social media invites the inclusion of previously marginalized voices that do not legitimize dominant knowledge or do not pertain to a topic estimated appropriate for public discussion. As more people gain access to voicing their opinions via social media, a kind of uninhibited communication is reified in online public spheres. Lyotard (1993) propones that such communication marks ‘intensity’ and more genuine engagement.
Jameson (1991, 1998, 2003) offers a more oppositional view of postmodern culture and instead associates the postmodern condition with symptoms of the death of humanity and a loss of a historical sense of reality (cf. Felluga, 2003). He argues that online communication in the postmodern era reflects a depthlessness which manifests itself through literal flatness and qualitative superficiality (Jameson, 2003). In theory, it manifests itself through the postmodern rejection of the belief that one can move beyond the surface appearances to some deeper truth; we are left instead with ‘multiple surfaces’ and, in turn, our models for the real have taken over the place of the real. Jameson (2003) poignantly insists that this general depthlessness and lack of affection is countered by outrageous claims for extreme moments of intense emotion, similar to schizophrenia and a culture of addiction. Unlike Lyotard, he finds that nonsensical or reactive contributions from social media users are increasing, and increasingly effective, in the postmodern social mediated world. Indeed, it would appear to him that the Internet and social media arguably allow and foster the participation of “irrational”, even “hysterical” voices in “inappropriate” or “insignificant” topics in public sphere discourse (as cited in Kennedy & Sommerfeldt, 2015, p. 39).
Indeed different theories regarding the various aspects of postmodernity represent ongoing debate about how socio-cultural trends impact how community operates and how the individual makes sense of the welter of one’s experience while communicating this to others. As this article assumes that postmodern values dominate the contemporary society, prominent themes of postmodernity, including virtual reality, social networking and online community, Internet platforms, deconstruction of human interactions, as well as decentralized identity and social dislocation, are instrumental for considering the implications of social media discourse for individuals and publics.
In an article on postmodern social culture, Vekantesh and Firat (1995) propose the importance of acknowledging that the contemporary society is a society of generalized communication. Fostered particularly by mass electronic media, all experience in this world is on a real-time basis, and the world is continuously making itself in the present. They suggest that this creates conditions for hyperreality in which reality is part of the symbolic world and is constructed rather than given. In this way, the emergence of symbolic and the spectacle as the basis of reality contributes to a blurring of the distinction between real and nonreal. Another condition of postmodernity, according to Vekantesh and Firat (1995), has to do with the fragmentation of the human subject into a more divided self. They argue that terms such as authentic self and centered connections have become questionable due to a lack of commitment to any central theme and to the abandonment of history, origin and context for the reconfiguration of moment-by-moment constructed and subjective reality. They highlight the human subject as a communicative subject rather than a cognitive subject; thus, the human being is decentred through the displacement of the authentic self for the made-up self.
In light of these changes in the broader cultural sphere involving production, consumption and circulation of symbolic truths and reality at both inter and intrapersonal as well as inter and intrasocietal level, how do we develop new means of orientation and identity structures? Moreover, how do the changes in everyday practices and experiences of communication and connection between individuals and communities impact how people dialogue with themselves and their world? While some sociological readings of postmodernism have expounded upon its dazzling globalization of social relations, its deconstruction of metaphysical foundations, its reifying of technology and its cult of consumer hedonism (Elliot, 2000), more philosophical works have sought to describe the ways in which postmodernism, virtual reality, and globalization have contributed to a growing fragmentation of the self (cf. Jameson, 1991; Turkle, 1995). Turkle (1995) explains that this fragmentation of the self is characterized by the derealization of the world, the waning of historicity and time, and the inability to represent one’s own experience. It is her belief that this seems to reach its full expression in the phenomenon of virtual reality.
The Impacts of Social Media on Personhood, Dialogue, and Encounter
As the nature of postmodernism and virtual reality destabilizes modern concepts of presence and identity (Alysworth, 2009), mainstream sociological investigations seek to track the major changes in perspectives over society and the world in general. Not surprisingly, this development of social and political interest and concern to do with postmodernism has drawn our attention to the ways in which modern social networks and social media are impacting and, perhaps, deconstructing human interactions, thereby changing the way in which people and communities encounter one another.
At present, there is no doubt about it: social media use is prevalent. We are referring to social networking sites, such as Facebook, that allow individuals to construct a private and/or public profile, maintain a list of friends and contacts, and connect and share information with others on these sites (Boyd & Ellison, 2008). As of June 2017, there are 1.32 billion daily users of Facebook (Facebook, 2017). According to Statistics Canada, approximately 7 in 10 Canadians who use the Internet use it to access social networking sites (Sinha, 2014). Approximately two thirds of Americans currently use social media, with this number steadily growing (Perrin, 2015). Boyd (2007) stated that due to the pervasiveness of social media in our everyday lives, there is a need to understand “how the architecture that frames social life is changing and what it means” (p. 1). Social networking sites, such as Facebook, have been mediating relationships and connections between people for over two decades. The pervasive nature and ongoing usage of social media has prompted us to question its role in personhood, dialogue, and encounter. In his discussion of personhood, Längle (2003) states:
The “schizophrenic” nature of our times is that we have the best structures of communication in human history, that we travel internationally, more than any generation before us, but that in the end we are lonelier and more culturally isolated than ever before. The increase in contact between people of different cultures has led to a consumption of the pleasant aspects of cultures but not to a true dialogue. This lack of profound dialogue, and consequently of mutual understanding, provokes an anxiety of alienation and of loss of identity. This phenomenon can be observed, for example, in patterns tourism and immigration. The increase in speed has brought along a decrease in contact, the increase of information has led to a decrease in communication, and the increase of traffic has destroyed much of the personal encounter.” (p. 28)
We would expound that this phenomenon of lack of dialogue leading to alienation anxiety and loss of identity may also be observed in the use of social media. The reality is that social networking sites, like Facebook, are a part of many people’s everyday lives and seem to continually shape them. We use social media in our personal lives, and have many colleagues who also use it professionally to network with other professionals or to advertise to prospective clients as a digitized form of ‘word of mouth’. Social media has offered us a unique opportunity to connect with individuals who may live geographically distant, or perhaps keep in touch with individuals we would have lost contact with if it were not for a platform that mediates such a connection. This is perhaps the main benefit of social media: connection. Questions then arise of what does it mean to be connected? What part of ourselves do we bring to the connection?
We noticed that in sharing certain portions of our lives publicly, we allow others in our concentric circles to be a part of these aspects of our lives; however, we also know that we are not sharing all of ourselves. Some parts of our lives we keep private, and other parts are revealed. Platforms such as Facebook allows users to create a public profile, which grows overtime as it mediates connections between others (i.e., posting pictures and sharing links and videos on each other’s walls). One’s profile thus becomes a curated self, which can be defined as a “digital embodiment of self” where one chooses to portray certain representations of self which are separate and continuous of one’s whole self (Kasch, 2013, p. 90).
Social media is a means by which one curated self can connect with other curated selves. This raises certain questions in terms of Existential Analytic theory, particularly in the domains of personhood, authenticity, and encounter. Many of our clients, who have a wealth of friends on social networking sites, continually suffer from low self-worth, feeling isolated, not seen, and a general lack of connection with others. It is curious that given the wealth of possible connections social media offers, many people still experience loneliness and a desire for authentic relationship. In light of our clinical experiences, we wonder whether it is possible to encounter another via social media with these curated selves.
Personhood and Dialogue
In Existential Analysis, to be a person means to be in dialogue with oneself and the world (Kwee & Längle, 2013). This dialogue is fundamental to being human. Dialogue enables us to encounter those around us, to resonate with our values, and to respond freely (Längle, 2003). Dialogue with others requires that we are receptive to being seen and moved by an encounter with another (Kwee & Längle, 2013), and we can respond by turning toward them (Längle, 2005). From this attitude of being open, receptive, and turned toward the other, we subjectively experience this encounter on an emotional level (Kwee & Längle, 2013). As free persons, we can check with ourselves and see how the encounter resonates with us. This pause for reflection is essential to reaching an understanding of an encounter, which is paramount for an authentic response. In our intimate reflections, we sense our values and integrate them with the information gleaned from the encounter. In doing so, we can find a position toward it. From this place of inner positioning of our person, we can respond to the encounter. Since our response emerges from a place of authenticity, the response exposes one’s person; therefore, dialogue with another is an intimate act which can deepen one’s relationship to self and the other.
Social media provides opportunity for an exchange of information between people, as well as opportunity to belong to a community of shared values (Fox & Moreland, 2015); however social media may also bring certain barriers to encounter. In order for an encounter to happen, there needs to be attention, justice, and appreciation given to oneself and received from the other (Längle, 2005). We will explore these prerequisites and how they may be attainted via social media.
Attention. For two persons to encounter one another, there needs to be adequate distance between them. This space enables one to see the other, to give attention to the other (Längle, 2005). The person becomes aware of one’s self and of the other. This distance allows each person to perceive the other, and each person can be respected the way they are. Giving one’s self attention forms one’s self-image, where to be given attention serves as the basis for self-worth.
The element of attention is perhaps the most salient feature of social networking sites, mainly due to the profile feature. Individuals can build their profiles where they share certain information about themselves such as age, employment, and contact information. Their profiles often serve as hubs for exchanges of information, such as stories, pictures, videos, and so on. Individuals on social media can also have a wealth of contacts added as friends, some who are close companions to acquaintances to strangers. The more public a person’s profile, and the more contacts one has, the more attention one may receive (Manago, Taylor, & Greenfield, 2012). Social media offers much opportunity for exposure of one’s person, depending on how public or private one chooses to keep one’s curated self. This exposure of one’s self could lay the groundwork for encounter, as an individual may be opening themselves to be received for the other; however, this also poses a risk as the individual may not be encountered by another. For example, emotional disclosures via Facebook status updates may be met with numerous likes and comments by others, or perhaps no comments.
It is impossible for the individual to know who and how many people have read their status updates, which may be like standing on stage in front of an unknown audience. This may be a form of social voyeurism for many who choose not to actively engage in relationship, but rather observe those around them without making their own person known. As social media continues to be prevalent, people are becoming more accustomed to this, and curating themselves precisely for this “public audience” (Manago et al., 2012, p. 378). Some individuals create specific personalities for social networking sites, such as Youtubers, who create and share specific content for mass audiences. Some Youtubers have thousands, or even millions, of subscribers who watch their videos regularly. As social media continues to be prevalent, people are adjusting to a certain level of public attention which has become a given.
Certain social networking sites, such as Facebook and Twitter, present a conundrum in the area of justice. On one hand, these sites provide the users an opportunity to be transparent and forthcoming with thoughts, feelings, values, worldviews, and so on. This gives others the choice to peer a little closer and a little deeper into another’s self. However, the structure of these platforms does not always support this deeper look. The ability to scroll endlessly through content, whether it is status updates, advertisements, photographs, or videos, makes it more likely that the other will be missed. Platforms, such as Facebook, have algorithms for the News Feed page designed to increase “engagement on social media” (Phneah, 2017) and to provide content that is the most appealing to each user. Individuals can select their News Feed preferences, which may increase their likelihood of seeing those they wish to connect with digitally. For those who actively seek their friends via social media, and try to maintain close connection, social networking sites may offer a means to deepen one’s look into another’s person (Kim & Roselyn Lee, 2011). It seems that giving justice to another via social media depends on the individual’s motivations to do so, and it also depends on how much of one’s self the other chooses to share, with each person revealing varying aspects of themselves. In summary, social media is geared toward giving and receiving attention, and some individuals may choose to look more deeply than a passing glance.
Appreciation. In order for there to be an encounter, appreciation also needs to be given and received, in addition to attention and justice (Längle, 2005). This means that an individual takes a position towards one’s self. It is also necessary for an individual to receive appreciation from the other through acknowledgement, which expresses that the other sees the value of the individual. Appreciation is a form of evaluation and positioning. If one can appreciate oneself and receive appreciation from the other, self-worth develops.
It is difficult to ascertain if social media facilitates acknowledgement of one’s appreciation for another. The opportunity is available because social networking sites are geared towards communication between people. It seems to depend on how individuals use social media to communicate, which varies person-to-person; however, some researchers have noted the changes in intimacy that have arisen due to social media (cf. Manago et al., 2012). For example, features such as status updates and public walls encourage self-disclosure to the public. This raises the question of modesty and protection of one’s person. To appreciate oneself means to have a feeling for oneself, to sense an inner value. In their study on self-disclosure on Facebook, Hollenbaugh and Ferris (2014) found that those who self-disclosed the most either did so to maintain relationships or to get attention due to lack of social cohesion. It seems that those who are lacking socially in face-to-face encounters may have less modesty on Facebook to receive acknowledgement from others. However, this may not be fruitful as the individual may receive attention, but not appreciation. Self-disclosure may cause others to pause and notice the individual, but it may not be enough for others to acknowledge the individual’s value. This seems to depend on the individual’s social network, quality of relationships, motivation for using social media, and so on.
In summary, social networking sites may offer opportunity to receive attention, justice, and appreciation from others. It brings people together virtually, allowing groups of individuals to be a part of one another’s lives in ways geographical distance does not. Individuals can choose to whom and how much attention is given. They can also choose to look more closely whether that be by actively seeking another’s content. They can also express their appreciation for others through instant messaging or making comments on posts.
One challenge that social media poses considering Existential Analytic theory is that of inner dialogue. The prerequisites for encounter may be received by others on social media, but the individual may not afford one’s self attention, justice, and appreciation, which are equally necessary for an authentic encounter. This raises the question of whether individuals who use social media are acting and responding in an authentic way.
Authenticity and the Curated Self
Authenticity is where one can identify with oneself and act in accordance with one’s values (Längle, 1999). Essentially, to be authentic is to be able to say “yes” to oneself and live with inner accordance to oneself. The question of authenticity arises in social media: is every comment, post, or exchange an authentic one? Philosophers seem to disagree, with some suggesting that social media has allowed for more authentic engagement (cf. Lyotard, 1993) and others view mediated exchanges as more reactive and less authentic (cf. Jameson, 2003). There is some evidence to suggest that social media provides a platform for revealing one’s true self with less risk than face-to-face encounters (Reinecke & Trepte, 2014). However, this may be more so true for individuals with higher well-being, as social networking sites promote norms of positivity. It seems that individuals who act and respond on social media authentically feel more socially connected than those whose curated selves are only fragments of their authentic selves (Grieve & Watkinson, 2016).
It is difficult to determine if one is using social media authentically, as authenticity requires an inner dialogue with one’s person (Längle, 1999). As Kwee and Längle (2013) stated, “to be personally responsible means that one can stand behind what one does, with authenticity, meaning that one’s responses correspond to his or her true self” (p. 3). In light of this, we question whether individuals are representing themselves and responding to others authentically if evidence suggest that many of the exchanges via social media are superficial (cf. Manago et al., 2012). Currently, there is a paucity of research on one’s inner dialogue and the use of social networking sites. More studies have employed quantitative methodologies, specifically exploring engagement with social media and health outcomes (cf. Fox & Moreland, 2015; Grieve & Watkinson, 2016; Hollenbaugh & Ferris, 2014; Kim & Roselyn Lee, 2011; Manago et al., 2012; Panova & Lleras, 2016) We wonder if individuals are responding via social media with inner consent, in resonance with their authentic selves, or whether individuals using social media are reacting to various exchanges with their curated selves?
Potential Barriers of Social Media to Inner Dialogue
In our observations of social media usage, we have noticed a few barriers that may hinder inner dialogue necessary for authenticity and personal encounter. Particularly in light of encounter between two persons, we expound that social media is inherently distancing: self-distancing, physically distancing, and temporally distancing. Social media allows individuals to become objects of observation through the cultivation of profiles. Individuals can view images of themselves, subject themselves to their own judgements, and alter how others perceive them through publicizing, editing, and concealing specific information and content about themselves. In doing so, individuals curate personas of themselves (cf. Kasch, 2013) and continually modify these personas through their interactions with others. Social media is also distancing physically, as it is the antithesis of face-to-face communication. On social networking sites, the individual interacts with others through their virtual self. Apart from as much physical self as necessary to engage in the virtual world, the body is left largely unengaged. People on social networking sites can communicate with one another disembodied, not having to be aware of their body language or positioning. Zhao (2005) states that this feedback from the other which validates our person and touches us, moving us, is missing in cyber interactions. Social media is also distancing temporally. Individuals do not have to respond to another in real time, as they do in face-to-face encounters, but can take as much time as desired to reply. On social networking sites like Facebook, individuals can scroll through their history and view pictures of themselves and interactions with others from years prior. Facebook even presents these “memories” on individuals’ News Feeds.
Naturally, there are different aspects of social media which facilitate differing degrees of distance in one’s interactions. For example, there may be the most distance in liking another’s post as compared to writing a comment to sending a private message to video conferencing. All of these options are viable on Facebook. The differing forms of distance that social media presents may not be wholly detrimental to encounter, but there also needs to be a certain level of intimacy with one’s self to engage in an authentic encounter. Intimacy with one’s self, such as spending time along thinking, can be difficult for many people (cf. Wilson et al., 2014), but a key aspect of one’s person is identifying with one’s self, and being able to say, ‘this is me’ (cf. Längle, 2003). It seems that the greater the distance between the person and their virtual persona, and the greater the distance between the individual and the other, the more diluted the dialogue becomes, and therefore, less likely an authentic encounter.
Personal Existential Analysis: Phenomenology in the Facilitation of Encountering
As social media restructures the capacities of individuals to encounter one another, it has become crucial to anticipate ways in which we will seek to support authentic inner and outer dialogue with the aim of facilitating genuine encounter. To this end, we suggest that PEA offers a phenomenological and person-centered approach for developing one’s inner dialogue in order to engage in meaning and authentic encounters with the world. By fostering inner consent and locating personhood in its authenticity, PEA paves the way for the discovery of a responsible way for dealing with oneself and the world towards a fulfilled as well as mentally and emotionally free existence (Kwee & Längle, 2013).
According to Kwee and Längle (2013), the methodological steps of PEA correspond to the dialogical nature of personhood, in which the human being is in a constant process of exchange with oneself and the world as a basis for realizing being a person. Systematically, the application of PEA is intended for helping individuals with the following: a) reconnect with reality by working on a clear view of the facts; b) connect with their primary, often unconscious understanding and feelings; c) foster inner dialogue toward better understanding and finding themselves through inner positioning; and d) come to an acceptable and responsible action based on the previous steps. This represents a viable means for accessing the potentials of the person for dialogue and authentic encounter through the actualization of his or her personal freedom in dealing with life and with the world. Central to PEA are the external activities of the person in dialogue through subjective modes of experience, including being impressionable, taking an inner position, and being expressive. This conceptual model of personal dialogue informs the sequence of PEA.
PEA in the Renewal of Inner Dialogue
The process of PEA facilitates a sensitization towards one’s own personal freedom within which to experience self-acceptance and self-determination. Through cultivating the freedom inherent to given inner consent to one’s action, people can discover a responsible way of dealing with life and with the world. Authentic engagement with experiences and specific situations stems from the development of ongoing dialogical encounters through which people are invited to give an answer to each real situation, the givens in his or her existence. PEA enables individuals to pause and take account of their own personal feelings, wishes, hopes and anxieties in order to form a position. By thus posturing themselves, people are able to take personal responsibility in standing behind what they say or do, with authenticity, so that their responses correspond to their true selves.
In the context of social networking and virtual reality, the authentic self is filtered through a publicized and projected persona. This persona is reflected in the content which the individual curates for the purposes of creating and maintaining a specific social structure or profile through which to communicate and interact with others; in other words, the authentic self is captured by proxy of the images, status updates, posts and videos which one puts on display for the general public. It is believed that the individual identifies with the content comprising their virtual self and, indeed, these identification, experiences and notions can be consolidated and structured into a kind of virtual personality. It is important, however, to remember that the essence of one’s personhood cannot be replaced with these various identifications. It is possible in an increasingly virtualized world that we may come to identify more and more with our projected social identity(ies) and not with our essences. It is, therefore, crucial to recognize and remain connected to the essence from which the authentic self derives. Without ongoing dialogical encounters with our particular existence, including feelings, affect, values, cognition, moral conscience, and so on, we may be liable to lose the connection to our essential qualities and thus surrender the clarity and wisdom which stems from inwardly, intimately generating a personal position by attending to that which corresponds to one’s own. PEA represents the subjective capacity to locate what is personal; it is a process whereby the individual receives what authentically and uniquely emerges within one’s self in contact with the outer impact. Without this reflective process of inner dialogue, a person’s engagement with others and the world merely consists of reactions or arbitrary behaviour; it does not represent an opening up of the person, and is not therefore a genuine encounter (Kwee & Längle, 2013).
PEA facilitates authentic dialogue by cultivating intimate reflection and understanding within the person who is being addressed (Kwee & Längle, 2013). It takes the person out of a situation in order to gain perspective in the context of one’s existence and creates precious space between the moment of being addressed and answering. On the basis of understanding and sensed inner movement, the person is then able to give a response, answering in such a way that truly discloses one’s self, showing what he or she has developed through the process of inner positioning and giving it into the world by expressing it. Through this process of sifting and sorting through what is one’s own, the individual is able to elaborate and connect a given situation to one’s authentic self prior to entering back into the outer world with a response. Upon finding an inner position and locating his or her person in it, an individual is ready for action, ready to be exposed and to express an answer. In the person’s chosen response, he or she mobilizes the potential for true encounter, and through such encounter, the person is able to fully enter his or her existence, perhaps even in the virtual world.
Conclusion
In this article, we proposed that Existential Analysis offers valuable concepts for framing discourse surrounding social media and personhood. Indeed, we believe that there are ways in which Existential Analytic concepts such as dialogue and encountering provides us with avenues for inquiry into the relationship between online social networking and the authentic self. By highlighting the necessity of attention, justice, and appreciation for the occurrence of genuine encounter, we identified the challenges of social media in enabling openness and authentic exchange between persons. Finally, we suggested the practical application of PEA as a viable means for stimulating and maintaining inner dialogue which is essential in the actualization of a person’s potential to truly encounter the particular realities of the virtual world. Future research may uncover whether PEA, as a method utilized for facilitating phenomenological encountering, brings to bear the dialogical nature of personhood in social media contexts.
