Según las estadísticas, en muchos países aumenta el número de personas cuya emoción dominante es el miedo. Lamentablemente, en el ranking de estos países Rúsia no ocupa el último puesto. No solo son los pacientes de casos clínicos los que sufren por angustia irracional, sino tambien personas sanas psiquicamente que presentan un carácter acentuado de tipo ansioso (psicasténico). Estas personas sienten angustia fundamental y una gran angustia de expectativa, que es considerado desde la perspectiva analitico-existencial trastornos de todos los cuatros motivaciones fundamentales de la existencia. Sin embargo, en Rusia históricamente se suelen aceptar las dudas e inseguridad en uno mismo. Tal vez, debido a esta tradición, los psicoterapeutas rusos y los clásicos de la literatura rusa en sus espléndidas descripciones fenomenológicas de este tipo de personalidad “defensiva” subrayan sus atractivos rasgos, como contrapeso a la opinión de sus colegas europeos. Las personas “defensivas” son extremadamente sensibles, tímidas, indecisas, graciosas y enternecedoras, pero en situaciones de defensa de sus valores genuinos son capaces de actuar con valentía. Esta gente personifica los rasgos típicos de la inteligencia rusa – no solo la élite intelectual de la sociedad, sino gente de elevados principios morales, cuyo comportamiento está motivado sólo por su conciencia.
Phenomenology of perception of anxious personality type by Russian and Western therapists: sociocultural aspects of the enigmatic “Russian soul”
According to statistics, the number of people whose dominant emotion is fear is increasing in many countries. Unfortunately, Russia does not occupy the last position in the ranking list of these countries. People who suffer from irrational fear are not only the patients of medical cases, but also mentally healthy persons with trait anxiety (or psychasthenia) as an accentuation of character. These persons feel fundamental fear and enormous fear of expectation, which in the context of existential analysis means the deficits in all the four fundamental motivations. However, doubting and lack of self-trust have been historically approved in Russia. Apparently due to this tradition, Russian psychotherapists and classics of Russian literature, unlike with their Western colleagues, emphasize the attractive features of this type of “defensive” personality in their excellent phenomenological descriptions. These “defensive” persons are supersensitive, timid, indecisive, funny, and touching, although they can act with great courage in situations of defense of their real values. These people typify the features of Russian intelligentsia which means not only the intellectual elite of the society, but persons of high moral character whose behavior is governed only by their conscience.
INTRODUCTION
It is common knowledge that the number of people whose dominant emotion is fear is increasing in many countries, including Russia, and along with this, people who suffer from irrational fear and anxiety are not only the patients of medical cases, but also mentally healthy persons with trait anxiety (or psychasthenia) as an accentuation of character. Interestingly, there have always existed the differences in perception of anxious personality type by Russian and Western psychotherapists and in this brief review we are going to look at the opinions of leading Russian therapists and world-famous classics of Russian literature on this subject.
ABOUT ACCENTUATION OF CHARACTER
By anxious or hypersensitive personality type we mean here mentally healthy, but accentuated persons with a great amount of unhealthy fear in their life. Speaking of accentuated personality or accentuated character, we must mention German psychiatrist Karl Leonhard who was the first to introduce the concept of accentuated personality (Leonhard, 1964). He described accentuations as the individual traits which become pathological in unfavorable circumstances. He also classified accentuations. According to him, accentuated person is a common phenomenon (he confirmed that about 50% of population of Berlin were accentuated people). His follower Russian psychologist Andrey Lichko elaborated the theory of accentuated characters. He emphasized that accentuation is the extreme variant of norm and a combined result of heredity and upbringing (Lichko, 1977).
WHAT IS PSYCHASTHENIC CHARACTER
Classifying different types of accentuated personalities, Leonhard used the term “pedantic” for anxious hesitant people, but Russian specialists prefer the word “psychasthenic”. A follower of Charcot and an unheralded competitor of Freud, Pierre Marie Félix Janet was an outstanding French psychologist, philosopher, and psychotherapist who introduced the term “psychasthenia” (from Greek “psyche” – “soul” and “asthenia” – “weakness”) as early as in 1894. According to Janet, character traits typical of psychasthenic are sensitivity, shyness, timidity, hypochondria, vulnerability, anxiety. Also, these individuals are distinguished by their sluggishness, self-exactingness, introspection, and taking care of all the details (Pitman, 1984).
Emil Kraepelin, one of the founders of modern psychiatric nosology, at the close of the 19th century considered psychasthenia to be the second of the three major types of neurotic behavior (Kisker, 1964). Karl Jaspers (Huber, 2002) described the psychasthenic syndrome as a “diminution of psychic energy” dealing with “some somatic and psychological weakness” (Jaspers, 1968).
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, Nobel prize winner and founder of modern behavior therapy (Pavlov, 1954, 1967), classified such people as individuals with the predominance of cortical activity of brain and low subcortical activity. These individuals are people of “weak nervous system”, people of high sensitivity who cannot bear long-lasting and strong stress stimuli.
German psychiatrist Ernst Kretschmer in his well-known work “Physique and Character” attempted to correlate physical constitution with personality traits. He classified asthenics as a subtype of schizothyme type (lean, narrowly built people). He wrote: “Many of them are like Roman houses with bare facades, villas which have closed their shutters to the strong sun, but where festivals are being held in the dimly lit rooms inside” (Kretschmer, 1930).
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PEDANTIC (ANANCASTIC) AND PSYCHASTHENIC CHARACTER
Since 1997 there is no such term as psychasthenia in modern classifications of mental disorders. Western specialists of different directions of psychotherapy give brilliant typologies of personalities, but they do not use the term psychasthenic character or psychasthenic personality (Table 1). Nevertheless, Russian psychotherapists still use the term psychasthenia when speaking about certain type of people from accentuated character up to personality disorder. Moreover, they consider psychasthenic and pedantic (anancastic) types of personality to be completely different.
Table 1. Terminology of Western psychotherapists concerning personality type with a great deal of unhealthy fear
| Author | Title | The term used |
| Karl Jaspers | Allgemeine Psychopathologie General psychopathology | “obsessive-compulsive personality type” |
| Kurt Schneider | Klinische Psychopathologie Clinical psychopathology | “anankastic type”, “asthenic type” |
| Fritz Riemann | Grundformen der Angst (Basic Forms of Anxiety) (1961) | “obsessive-compulsive personality” |
| Karl Leonhard | Akzentuierte Persönlichkeiten (Accentuated Personality) (1968) | “pedantic type”, “anxious type” |
| Nancy McWilliams | Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process (1994) | “obsessive-compulsive personality type” |
As these types of characters are described marvelously by classics of Russian literature (Tolstoy, Chekhov, Goncharov among them), let us discuss the most vivid examples. For instance, the main heroes of Ivan Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov” are typical psychasthenic Ilya Oblomov and his best friend pedantic Andrey Shtolts (Goncharov, 2006). These are totally opposite characters, Ilya is shown as a hesitating and reflective person, and Andrey Shtolts as an ever busy and excited person, however, both friends have a lot of fear and anxiety. What is more, the author stresses that Oblomov is a typical Russian character, and Shtolts has German roots (his father came from German).
Russian psychotherapists Mark Burno (Burno, 2006), Pavel Volkov (Volkov, 2005), and Vadim Rudnev (Rudnev, 2002) give a comparative analysis of psychasthenic and pedantic characters (Table 2). Here are interesting findings of their observations.
Table 2. The opposite features of psychasthenic and pedantic characters (according to M. Burno, 2006; P. Volkov, 2005, V. Rudnev, 2002)
| Person of pedantic (anancastic) character | Person of psychasthenic character |
| Typical of western and northwestern European countries | Typical of Russia |
| Assertiveness, perseverance | Defensiveness, inferiority complex, timidness |
| Normal ability for repression | Poor ability for repression |
| Vivid perceptibility | Poor perceptibility because of the specificity of subcortical structures of the brain |
| Quickness of response | Clumsy movements |
| Rationality based on mental pedantism | Rationality based on unhealthy anxiety and doubts |
| Accuracy, scrupulosity, and exactness | Defensive striving for accuracy as a struggle with his fussiness and draining of his strength |
| Obsessive doubts | Unhealthy anxious doubts |
Defensiveness, inferiority complex, timidness are typical of psychasthenic person, while people of pedantic character stand out for their assertiveness and perseverance. The specificity of subcortical structures of psychasthenics’ brain defines their poor perceptibility, and anancasts have very vivid perceptibility. Psychasthenics differ from anancasts in the ability for repression (poor ability for repression of the former and normal ability of the latter). Clumsy movements of a psychasthenic person present a contrast to the quickness of response of an anancast.
Accuracy, scrupulosity, and exactness are typical of anancastic person. “Everything should be in order”, – this is his motto. Quite the opposite, the defensive strive for accuracy of psychasthenic is a struggle with his fussiness and draining of his strength. Rationality of pedantic (anancastic) person is based on his mental pedantism, while rationality of psychasthenic is based on his unhealthy anxiety and doubts. Anancast has unhealthy obsessive doubts. He keeps checking the door is locked, lights are switched off, etc., although he knows positively that everything is all right, and understands the absurdity of this repeated checking. Psychasthenic has unhealthy anxious doubts. He wants to verify if everything is all right: he really is not shure that the lights are switched off, etc., because of his obliviousness, scattered attention, difficulty of concentrating, and absence of vivid impressions. His fears are realistic.
PSYCHASTHENIC CHARACTER FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF MODERN EXISTENTIAL ANALYSIS
The present-day existential analytics follow the three-dimensional view of the human being of the founder of logotherapy Viktor Frankl (Frankl, 2011). According to this approach, the three anthropological structures are somatic, psychic, and spiritual (personal) parts. Under the aspect of this theory, we can notice the difference of psychasthenics in comparison to anancastic (pedantic) people in all these three dimensions. We have already mentioned the specificity of structure of subcortex of psychasthenics (see Table 2) which determines their poor perceptibility (this is unlike pedantic people). Speaking of psychic aspect, we can’t help noticing the difference in coping reactions of these two types of character. Coping reactions (the involuntary protective mechanisms) usually precede the responsible and free action of a person and help to cope with sudden threats (Längle, 1998). The main coping reactions of anancastic (pedantic) people are “activism” and aggression, whereas psychasthenics usually demonstrate avoidance, flight, and a reflex to play dead. And as far as the spiritual dimension of these people is concerned, we are going to describe it in the later parts of this article.
The key question of modern existential analysis is the theory of fundamental existential motivations (Längle, 2011). Looking at the psychasthenic character in the light of this theory, we can see what prevents such a person from living a fulfilling and productive existence. Motivations which provoke such potentials as freedom and will (“seeing it as moving a person towards a free act within the world”) come from the dialogue of each person with the world and with himself. Thus, the four fundamental conditions for a fulfilling existence follow from four fundamental structures of existence, the “cornerstones of existence”, as Alfried Längle calls them (Längle, 2011). These are: “the world in its factuality and potentiality; life with the network of relationships and its feelings; being oneself as a unique, autonomous Person; the wilder context where to place oneself that is development through one’s activities, opening one’s future” (Längle, 2011).
From this point of view, we can see that psychasthenic has unsettled issues in the field of all the four fundamental existential motivations. Such a person suffers from fundamental fear (lack of Basic Trust in the World) and from the fear of expectation which is fear of fear (Längle, 1996). He feels the lack of protection, space and support; he reflects upon frailty of life and mortality of human being (which are the aspects of the first fundamental existential motivation that deals with conditions and possibilities).
Psychasthenic also suffers from his high ambitions combined with low self-esteem, auto criticism, self-oriented perfectionism, from fear of rejection and failure (these are the issues of the second fundamental existential motivation which deals with relationships, emotions, and values, and of the third fundamental existential motivation which deals with the uniqueness and conscience, with the ability of a person to say “yes” to himself, to appreciate himself; the aspects of the fear of expectation).
And last but not the least, as it is stated below, such a person is desperate to understand the meaning of life and his place in the world (the issues of fourth fundamental existential motivation).
SPECIAL FEATURES TYPICAL OF PSYCHASTHENIC CHARACTER
Psychasthenic has his special anxious doubts. He usually cares about death and illness, shame and ignominy, insanity, interpersonal relations, meaning and purpose of life, and ethical duty (Burno, 2005). Ever and again these unhealthy doubts (as circles of thinking) paralyze their will to live, prevent decision-making, and may influence the critical moments in their life. For example, when Ilya Oblomov meets his true love Olga Ilyinskaya who also falls in love with him, it is his habit of unhealthy introspection that ruins the happiness for all his life.
“…In Oblomov’s breast the poison was working swiftly and vigorously. In thought he reviewed his life, and for the hundredth time felt his heart ache with repentance and regret for what he had lost. He kept picturing to himself what, by now, he would have been had he strode boldly ahead, and lived a fuller and a broader life, and exerted his faculties; whence he passed to the question of his present condition, and of the means whereby Olga had contrived to become fond of him, and of the reason why she still was so. “Is she not making a mistake?” was a thought which suddenly flashed through his mind like lightning; and as it did so the lightning seemed to strike his heart, and to shatter it. He groaned with the pain. “Yes, she is making a mistake,” he kept saying again and again… Yes, her present affection is a mere making ready to fall in love, a mere experiment of which I am the subject, for the reason that I chanced to be the first subject to come to hand… As soon as ever she saw that someone else, she would turn from me with horror. In fact, I am stealing what belongs to another; I am no better than a thief. My God, to think that I should have been so blind!”
Glancing into the mirror, he saw himself pale, dull, and sallow… No, he was not the type with which women could fall in love! He flung himself down upon the bed, and buried his face in the pillow. “Forgive me, Olga!” he murmured. “And may you always be happy!” (Goncharov, 2006).
Typical anxious doubts of psychasthenic, which are philosophical questions of the meaning of life and the fear of death, represents Pierre Bezukhov, one of the main characters of Leo Tolstoy’s “War and Peace”:
“…No matter what he thought about, he always returned to these same questions which he could not solve and yet could not cease to ask himself. It was all if the thread of the chief screw which held his life together were stripped, so that the screw could not get in or out, but went on turning uselessly in the same place… “…What is bad? What is good? What should one love and what hate? What does one live for? And what am I? What is life, and what is death? What Power governs it all?” There was no answer to any of these questions, except one, and that not a logical answer and not at all a reply to them. The answer was: “You’ll die, and all will end. You’ll die and know all, or cease asking”. But dying was also dreadful” (Tolstoy, 2008).
Ivan Voinitski, the title character of famous Chekhov’s play “Uncle Vanya”, also suffers from meaninglessness of life:
“…Day and night the thought haunts me like a fiend, that my life is lost forever. My past does not count, because I frittered it away on trifles, and the present has so terribly miscarried! What shall I do with my life and my love? What is to become of them? This wonderful feeling of mine will be wasted and lost as a ray of sunlight is lost that falls into a dark chasm, and my life will go with it” (Chekhov, 1916).
Pyotr Gannushkin, the well-known in Russia psychotherapist and the pioneer of classification of mental disorders in Russia, stressed that one of the most vivid features of psychasthenic’s character is self-reflection. He described the “triple ego of psychasthenic” in such a way: “…the first ego feels fear, the second one doesn’t want show the other people his psychic state, masks this fear, and tries (often successfully) to hide his anxiety and look calm, finally, the third ego observes the other two, and sometimes even laughs at them” (Gannushkin, 2007).
Mark Burno, the main Russian investigator of these “defensive” people, always describes them with great sympathy. Speaking of national psychological peculiarities of Russian character, he says that self-reflection and doubts of queasy conscience were typical of Russians from ancient times. Feeling of insecurity, delicacy, outsized conscientiousness, and faithfulness, – these features characterize Russian spirituality. According to Burno, defensiveness was always encouraged in Russia. Defensive character (particularly described by Chekhov) with its sensitiveness, hesitance, and psychologically nuanced moral sense is a phenomenal personality type admired by many people throughout the world. Quoting Russian psychiatrist Ivan Sikorsky, Burno even calls his psychasthenic patients “the unwitting victims of an organic moral progress of mankind” (Burno, 2006).
THERAPY OF MARK BURNO
Mark Burno stresses that psychasthenics usually stand out with their spirituality, exquisite sense of beauty, and fine taste in art and nature. These features are the basis of his Therapy by means of Creative Self-Expression (TCSEB) as a school of therapy by means of Spiritual Culture. This therapy, dealing with the treatment of patients with painful doubts and painful feelings of their inferiority, is based on understanding of peculiarities of their character and finding of their own way, their individual manner of inspired and curative self-expression (under the supervision of therapist and drawing on the experience of personalities of creative geniuses, who always suffered and treated themselves with their creative activities) (Burno, 2005, 2006, 2011). This method includes self-exploration, study of typology of characters, production of creative works, creative communication with nature, art, literature, and science, creative collecting, keeping a diary, travelling, correspondence with the therapist, immersion in the past, finding of spirituality in everyday life. Creativity clarifies, defines, and consolidates the personality of the author, says Burno. The essence of this method has much in common with Viktor Frankl’s idea of self-transcendence (ST) which is a keystone of his theory of search for meaning (Frankl, 1985).
BRAVE BEHAVIOR OF THESE DEFENSIVE PEOPLE
Mark Burno identifies some other peculiarities of this character. These are: overcompensation which eventually could be represented by assertive or even presumptuous behavior, unnaturalness of which strikes the eye; depersonalization (emotional numbing, sense of being detached from his feelings while keeping clarity of thought, especially in stressful situations). Such personality trait as depersonalization helps psychasthenics to deal with their excessive sensitivity, to stay rational and dispassionate in dangerous situations and even to perform exploits. Psychasthenic may keep fear of a certain event for his whole life, and when the event comes, he will meet it with great courage. Exactly it was depersonalization that helped Pierre Bezukhov to survive all the terrors when he was captured by French soldiers or found himself on the battlefield of Borodino.
But these supersensitive, sometimes funny and touching Russian psychasthenics behave bravely in risky circumstances not only because of their depersonalization. They do it owing also to their high sensitivity to the truth, honesty, and honor, their intention to live in good faith and clear conscience. That is why they perform acts of great courage in situations of defense of their real values, their existential values.
Thus, timid and indecisive Pierre Bezukhov (Tolstoy, 2008) without any doubt decided to protect his honor, challenging his wife’s lover to a duel. Pierre, who was noted for his vulnerability and shyness in Moscow privileged circles in peace time, saved a child from fire in Moscow in flame. He even cherished the idea to kill Napoleon and give his life as a sacrifice for his country.
Chekhov’s mild-mannered and unmurmuring Uncle Vanya (Ivan Voinitski) devoted all his life to managing of the estate of professor Serebrakoff, the husband of his deceased sister. He worked hard with a meagre salary and had never lamented his fate. But when Serebrakoff decided to sell the estate and disinherit his daughter Sonia, Vanya’s niece, Uncle Vanya stood his ground with lethal force and nearly killed him (Chekhov,1916).
Indeed, these people, even if they may look peculiar and funny at first sight, typify the features of Russian Intelligentsia which means not only the intellectual leaders of the society, but persons of high moral character whose behavior is governed only by their conscience.
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